Postcards from Mars

SAM Construction – Selecting window film for the Test Module

The 1987 Test Module (prototype for the Biosphere 2) will be the controlled environment / greenhouse for SAM. Many simultaneous plant studies will be conducted in the Test Module, including the growth of food cultivars to offset groceries introduced at SAM, mushrooms as a means to convert inedible biomass into digestible nutrients, and algae as a carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration agent in addition to the variety of plants contained therein.

We recognize that a greenhouse such as the Test Module is not a structure that will be built on Mars, at least not in its current form. There are four reasons for this: a) radiation that the Martian atmosphere is too thin to mitigate and that glass does not reject; b) ability to manage the high pressure differential between the interior and exterior; c) ability to manage the extreme temperature differentials; and d) low ambient light for plant growth, just 590 watts per square meter on Mars compared to 1000 watts per square meter on Earth, both measured at zenith. Nearly all food cultivars will require additional, synthetic lighting even if routinely exposed to full sunlight on Mars.

Therefore, we are modifying the Test Module to more closely represent a greenhouse structure on Mars, if one were to be built above ground. All surfaces facing up (the greatest exposure to radiation through the least amount of Martian atmosphere) will be painted with a reflective, white elastimeric to represent radiation shielding or regolith. The vertical glass panes (base level of the TM) will be tinted darker to reduce the ambient optical transmission by approximately 50% to match the 590/1000 watts per square meter reduction from Earth to Mars. What’s more, each film rejects between 75-85% infrared light, drastically reducing the thermal load on the total structure and thereby reducing power consumption by the mini-split air conditioners.

We used a Canon 60D camera with Tokina 12-24mm zoom lens set to a fixed ISO 250 and shutter speed 1250. We then held each of eight window films to the front of the lens and took a photo with no adjustments made. After the photo, we adjusted the f-stop ring to move the light meter back to its center, zero calibration. The difference between the two indicates the amount of light reduced, from the point of view of the camera sensor behind the film.

These are the results of our study.

e-film test at SAM - baseline

Baseline, no window film applied
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8 for a neutral lighting
Visible Light Transmission: 100% (not including the glass itself)

e-film test at SAM - 1DS-50 Neutral

Window film: 1DS-50 Neutral
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8, adjusted to neutral at f-stop 6.5
Visible Light Transmission: 60% with glass

e-film test at SAM - Therm-X 50

Window film: Therm-X 50
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8, adjusted to neutral at f-stop 6.5
Visible Light Transmission: 47% with glass (see discussion below)

e-film test at SAM - SYDS-50 Dual Reflective

Window film: SYDS-50 Dual Reflective
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8, adjusted to neutral at f-stop 5.6
Visible Light Transmission: 47% with glass

e-film test at SAM - Ceramic 45

Window film: Ceramic 45
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8, adjusted to neutral at f-stop 5.6
Visible Light Transmission: 42% with glass

e-film test at SAM - SYDS-35 Duel Reflective

Window film: SYDS-35 Duel Reflective
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8, adjusted to neutral at f-stop 5.0
Visible Light Transmission: 40% with glass

e-film test at SAM - Ceramic 35

Window film: Ceramic 35
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8, adjusted to neutral at f-stop 5.0
Visible Light Transmission: 31% with glass

e-film test at SAM - Therm-X 30

Window film: Therm-X 30
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8, adjusted to neutral at f-stop 5.0
Visible Light Transmission: 27% with glass

e-film test at SAM - SDS-35 / SXT-35

Window film: SDS-35 / SXT-35
Canon 60D, ISO 250
Shutterspeed 1250
Photo at f-stop 8, adjusted to neutral at f-stop 4.5
Visible Light Transmission: 26% with glass

The aperture of a camera lens is measured by the f-stop value, a ratio of the focal length of the lens (entry point of light to the exit) divided by the diameter of the aperture, or the opening created by concentric sheets of thin metal that converge around the center. The larger the opening the more light that enters, thus the shorter depth of field; the smaller the opening the less light that enters, thus requiring a longer exposure and greater depth of field.

A good explanation is given by the website Expert Photography.

The full f-stop values are as follows: f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, …

Where f/1.4 is the largest and f/64 is the smallest opening, each increase in value in the denominator represents a 50% reduction in light. From f/1.4 to f/2 is a 50% reduction, again from f/2 to f/2.8, and so forth. For those inclined to take the mathematics a bit further, use the formula for the area of a circle (pi * radius squared) to approximate how these values relate to the opening of the aperture.

Now, we will determine which level of visible light transmission (VLT) is a good approximation to that of the average, ambient sunlight on Mars. We started with an f-stop setting of f/8. The first window film 1DS-50 Neutral invoked an f-stop of f/6.5 to bring the light meter back to 0. This is a half stop, or roughly 25% reduction in VLT. The Therm-X 50 seems to be incorrectly rated or the camera did not register properly, as its 47% VLT does not match the 75% transmission seen by the camera.

The SYDS-50 Dual Reflective and Ceramic 45 both invoke a full stop, from f/8.0 to f/5.6 which is a 50% reduction in VLT and closely matches the stated 47% and 42% VLT per the product specs. If we had a more finely graduated light meter than the one built-in to the camera, we might see values closer to the window film specs.

With the remaining window films the f-stop value moves to f/5.0 (another half stop) and f/4.5 for the darkest (two full stops from the original, unfiltered f/8.0) for a 75% reduction in light which perfectly matches the window film manufacturer specs of 26% VLT.

Furthermore, we will choose a non-reflective film such that visiting researchers to SAM will not feel boxed into the Test Module at night where interior lights would reflect back. While the windows will be darker, we do want for our analog astronauts to enjoy the Moon, planets, and stars overhead to retain a sense of the vast cosmos despite their relative isolation in the sealed SAM habitat.

It appears the Ceramic 45 window film will give us the closest approximation to the visible sunlight on Mars.

“We thank Greg Spencer, owner of AGTP Window Films from Tucson, Arizona for provision of the window film packet used in this comparative study. We discovered Greg through a local search and subsequently learned that his company was on-site at Biosphere 2 in 1991 having applied films to the Biosphere apartment windows and campus facilities. With more than 40 years experience, we are not surprised that most of those applications are yet in place and holding!

Greg has generously donated his time and materials for this unique project. We welcome the return of Greg the Tinter to Biosphere 2, and are eager for his high quality product to be installed at SAM. Thank you!” –Kai Staats, Director of SAM

By kai|2022-08-09T20:30:24+00:00March 18th, 2021|Categories: Construction|0 Comments

SAM Construction – Test Module Lung Membrane Removed

After washing and scrubbing the EPDM membrane of the Test Module lung, we attempted to remove the bolts that hold the lung membrane in place using an angle grinder, only to realize that we had dozens of hours ahead of us and an unspeakable amounts of debris from the process. Then it occurred to us that a high torque impact wrench would either remove the nuts from the welded studs or snap them off (they have to be removed anyway). We borrowed a massive DeWalt from the Biosphere 2 Energy Center and jumped right in. In less than two hours we had the metal ring sections removed and the membrane pealed free.

For the first time in thirty four years, the Test Module lung is disassembled! Now, the real effort begins as we must remove the studs and return the top flange to a pristine state before attaching all new steel studs with which the EPDM membrane will be reattached and sealed.

By kai|2022-01-16T21:01:25+00:00March 17th, 2021|Categories: Construction|0 Comments

SAM Construction – CO2 Scrubber from Paragon SDC

After a week break from construction, Kai Staats visited Paragon Space Development Corporation, a partner in SAM design and implementation. CEO and President Grant Anderson has given SAM two CO2 scrubbers: one to experiment with, the other the foundation for what will operate in the living quarters to maintain safe levels of carbon dioxide. Trent Tresch and Kai Staats are conducting research into the most practical and energy efficient means to recycle soda lime such that the adsorption beds will be rotated on a daily basis when a full four crew members are in place.

By kai|2021-04-23T05:13:33+00:00March 16th, 2021|Categories: Construction|0 Comments

Biosphere 2’s Lessons about Living on Earth and in Space

Space: Science & Technology
Volume 2021 | Article ID 8067539 | DOI
by Mark Nelson, Biospherian (1991-93)

Abstract

Biosphere 2’s Lessons by Mark Nelson Biosphere 2, the largest and most biodiverse closed ecological system facility yet created, has contributed vital lessons for living with our planetary biosphere and for long-term habitation in space. From the space life support perspective, Biosphere 2 contrasted with previous BLSS work by including areas based on Earth wilderness biomes in addition to its provision for human life support and by using a soil-based intensive agricultural system producing a complete human diet. No previous BLSS system had included domestic farm animals. All human and domestic animal wastes were also recycled and returned to the crop soils. Biosphere 2 was important as a first step towards learning how to miniaturize natural ecosystems and develop technological support systems compatible with life.

Biosphere 2’s mostly successful operation for three years (1991-1994) changed thinking among space life support scientists and the public at large about the need for minibiospheres for long-term habitation in space. As an Earth systems laboratory, Biosphere 2 was one of the first attempts to make ecology an experimental science at a scale relevant to planetary issues such as climate change, regenerative agriculture, nutrient and water recycling, loss of biodiversity, and understanding of the roles wilderness biomes play in the Earth’s biosphere. Biosphere 2 aroused controversy because of narrow definitions and expectations of how science is to be conducted.

The cooperation between engineers and ecologists and the requirement to design a technosphere that supported the life inside without harming it have enormous relevance to what is required in our global home. Applications of bioregenerative life support systems for near-term space applications such as initial Moon and/or Mars bases, will be severely limited by high costs of transport to space and so will rely on lighter weight, hydroponic systems of growing plants which will focus first on water and air regeneration and gradually increase its production of food required by astronauts or inhabitants. The conversion of these systems to more robust and sustainable systems will require advanced technologies, e.g., to capture sunlight for plant growth or process usable materials from the lunar or Martian atmosphere and regolith, leading to greater utilization of in situ space resources and less on transport from Earth.

There are many approaches to the accomplishment of space life support. Significant progress has been made especially by two research efforts in China and the MELiSSA project of the European Space Agency. These approaches use cybernetic controls and the integration of intensive modules to accomplish food production, waste treatment and recycling, atmospheric regeneration, and in some systems, high-protein production from insects and larvae. Biosphere 2 employed a mix of ecological self-organization and human intervention to protect biodiversity for wilderness biomes with a tighter management of food crops in its agriculture. Biosphere 2’s aims were different than bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) which have focused exclusively on human life support.

Much more needs to be learned from both smaller, efficient ground-based BLSS for nearer-term habitation and from minibiospheric systems for long-term space application to transform humanity and Earth-life into truly multiplanet species.

Read the full paper

By kai|2021-06-02T20:35:53+00:00March 15th, 2021|Categories: Publications|0 Comments

SAM Construction – At the Close of Six Weeks

Sunset over Biosphere 2, by Kai Staats Six weeks have come and gone as though they were just a few days and at the same time a full year in the renovation of the Test Module at Biosphere 2 (B2). The first days were completely overwhelming, Trent and I covered cap to boot in dust, rust, and thirty years of grime. With the steadfast help of B2’s Tim and Terry, and three weeks effort by Cameron too, we moved beyond grinding, sanding, and cleaning to the tipping point of starting to put the Test Module back together again.

All twenty one of the ports are once again sealed, save a single, large hole in the plate steel foundation wall. The stainless steel floor is scraped and scrubbed and the overhead spaceframe dust-free, awaiting a final power wash and cleaning. The outer perimeter is primed, and the top of the lung sealed with an advanced silicon sealant called “795”, the same that has kept the windows sealed at Biosphere 2 for thirty-plus years. Next we paint the outside of the lung cover, seal the vertical plates, apply an elastomeric to the roof and then dive back inside to repair the lung, more than 200 bolts to replace.

The mechanical engineer is completing a final assessment for the potential thermal load in the dead of summer, and then we purchase and install the mini-split coolers. With a reflective coating applied to the upper glass panels to reduce the thermal load and more closely approximate the 50% solar radiation on Mars, we hope to come in with a significantly reduced power consumption over the original Test Module, our goal to go grid-tied or fully off-grid in the coming year or two.

On Monday, March 15 we take possession of a CO2 scrubber designed and built by Paragon Space Development Corporation for a NASA funded research project, and then dive into the modifications and upgrades to suit the demands of a rotational, four-person crew.

Day by day, we check boxes and add more to the long list of TODOs. Day by day we make progress and come closer to our goal, construction of a hi-fidelity Mars analog at Biosphere 2.

By kai|2021-04-23T05:13:36+00:00March 5th, 2021|Categories: Construction|0 Comments

Biosphere 2 Deputy Director John Adams conducts pressure suit test at SAM

A decade ago archaeologist at Portland State Dr. Cameron Smith redirected his knowledge and passion for human history toward the future of our species as we become interplanetary. His academic publications and books project a social—even biological evolution as we move to the planets and stars.

Cameron launched Pacific Spaceflight (PSF) to explore design, construction, and validation of low-cost, fully functional pressure suits that enable every-day citizens to reach the edge of space and beyond. These personal spacecraft are a critical aspect of off-world exploration, no matter if you are at 65,000 feet above sea level, on-orbit, or on the Moon or Mars. More than a novelty, PSF suits have been tested under water, in vacuum chambers, in the open cockpit of aircraft and in high altitude balloon projects. Cameron’s dynamic team of volunteers (including Kai Staats and Trent Tresch of a Space Analog for the Moon and Mars (SAM)) have both contributed to and been influenced by his critical work.

On Tuesday, March 2, at 7:00 am John Adams, Deputy Director of the University of Arizona Biosphere 2 engaged in the other-world journey of donning a pressure suit to conduct a number of tests for mobility and tool use, both of which can be challenging when encumbered by a sealed suit under greater than ambient pressure.

This endeavor was conducted inside and around the historic Biosphere 2 Test Module, now five weeks into a major refurbish and construction endeavor as the cornerstone of SAM. This event was a fully immersed operational test of the equipment, suit, and procedures which SAM researchers will enjoy when a part of this analog experience. SAM has purchased two suits from Smith Aerospace Garments that will be available for team members to use in the half acre SAM Mars yard just outside of the living quarters and Test Module.

The specs for this particular pressure suit are as follows:

Suit model: Pacific Spaceflight, experimental Mk SE I (2018-2019)
Suit construction: sealed bladder with high-durability outer garment; attached boots and gloves with removable helmet
Air composition: standard mix of ~78/21% nitrogen/oxygen levels
Pressure inside the suit: ~1.0 psi over ambient
Suit pressure max spec: 3.5 psi over ambient
Compressed air source: dual feed, oil-free air compressor with 4 gallon reserve

Cameron engaged John in the suit-up procedure for approximately 30 minutes (full photo gallery below). At this time the air compressor inside the Test Module simultaneously fed John’s suit directly and a manifold that enables controlled gas exchange to the outside world. Of his own accord he opened the bulkhead door and proceeded outside. There, his feed line was switched to the manifold exterior. The momentary break from his air source was possible due to the suit acting as a short-duration buffer. SAM teams will carry a small, portable compressed air source that will provide continuous flow as feed lines are swapped from airlock to the hab exterior.

With the assistance of Cameron and Trent, John conducted a basic walk, followed by tool use, ladder climb, CO2 level check, and ascent of the exterior of the Test Module lung. This prototype suit was designed for mobility, but has been surpassed by the current models which will be delivered to SAM by late spring 2021.

In conclusion John shared, “The suit is amazing! I feel really good … all things considered, you still have quite a bit of dexterity, quite a bit of ability to lift your legs, to move around complex objects. To have an opportunity to experience a pressurized suit in a simulation setting is incredible. I feel really fortunate to have this opportunity.”

We extend our thanks to the University of Arizona’s Aaron Bugaj for exceptional photography, Katie Morgan for work with social media, and Megan Russell and Britney Swiniuch for your support and enthusiasm for this first-ever pressure suit test at SAM.

By kai|2021-04-27T16:57:58+00:00March 4th, 2021|Categories: Research & Development|0 Comments

SAM Construction – Sweep, powerwash and scrub

Trent Tresch, Cameron Smith, Kai Staats, and Deputy Director of Biosphere 2 John Adams work to return the welded stainless steel floor of the Test Module to a clean, inhabitable state, February 23-25, 2021.

By kai|2021-04-23T05:14:14+00:00February 25th, 2021|Categories: Construction|0 Comments

SAM Construction – Floor removed!

The photos say it all!

By kai|2021-04-23T05:14:16+00:00February 19th, 2021|Categories: Construction|0 Comments

Cameron Smith on SAM at Biosphere 2

The best thing about this project is that the Test Module is not a PowerPoint presentation. It is a real object. I am helping refurbish the structure, with long sessions of grinding or other manual work that is ideal for thinking alone, uninterrupted. Some results of that time and thought, in the following.

My mind first considers the time context of my surroundings. The Test Module is an artifact, a structure generated by the minds and then hands of people. I imagine them here, originally, blurs moving about the gravitational center of this structure. I wander through what Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) called the ‘billows of time’, writing in 1860:

“Rough Samuel and sleek wheedling James were and are not. Their Life and whole personal Environment has melted into air. The Mitre Tavern still stands in Fleet Street; but where now is its scot-and-lot paying, beef-and-ale loving, cocked-hatted, pot-bellied Landlord; its rosy-faced, assiduous Landlady, with all her shining brasspans, waxed tables, well-filled larder-shelves; her cooks, and bootjacks, and errand-boys, and watery-mouthed hangers-on? Gone! Gone!…The Bottles they drank out of are all broken, the Chairs they sat on all rotted and burnt ; the very Knives and Forks they ate with have rusted to the heart, and become brown oxide of iron, and mingled with the indiscriminate clay. All, all, has vanished…[yet]…the mysterious River of Existence rushes on: a new Billow thereof has arrived, and lashes wildly as ever round the old embankments; but the former Billow, with its loud, mad eddyings, where is it?”

From page 88 of Carlyle, T. 1860. Critical and Miscellaneous Essays (III). Boston, Brown and Taggard.

We’re the most recent of these billows, Kai, Trent, and myself. We rush around hammering and sawing, painting, hoovering, hauling. Our efforts will bring some new function to this shapely structure. The results will carry on beyond us, digitized as scientific findings. Our small piece of the vast puzzle of human knowledge will be set in place.

The glass, metal, plastics and other materials composing the structure were brought together decades ago. From minds, to lines on paper, to materials brought together, to assembly. As with all fabrication it can seem like a slow form of magic. But it is not supernatural. Science outlines the relationships of things without invoking supernature, attributed causes to natural phenomena, and allowed us little humans to move and assemble an infinite array of materials for our various purposes. Today we move individual atoms, we control the flow of electrons; we are learning to manipulate remotely-entangled quantum particles. By less-subtle but still effective matter- and energy-manipulating means, the Test Module was constructed in 1987, enclosing just over 400 cubic meters in a sealable environment. It would be used to better understand the workings of living systems by the method of sequestering them from the rest of living systems.

These purposes were presented in Biological Life Support Technologies: Commercial Opportunities, NASA Biosphere 2 test module experimentation program by Alling, A., L.S. Leigh, T. MacCallum and N. Alvarez. 1990.

The structure was used, useful quanta were generated and then attention turned to the larger Biosphere, and the Test Module languished. It took on dust. Paint cracked and flaked away with gusts of wind. A window’s exterior pane was shattered by a pebble flung up by a weed-eater. Spots of rust wept orange streaks down the white exterior.

But after decades of this anonymity, attention returned to the Test Module. It still stood. Kai Staats, decades in the worlds of high power computing, radio astronomy and various fields of invention turned his energies to the research potential of the Biosphere. Deputy director John Adams pointed out that the Test Module remained viable. It needed work, but the essential structure was intact. In the nation and the world, the last decade had seen a new ‘billow’ of form shaping; serious thought was again entertained about the possibilities of humans living beyond the surface of the Earth. This can only be done if we come to understand the ecology of closed environments. Kai had built SIMOC, a computer model of a closed ecosystem now using the power of distributed computing to simulate complex habitats. The Test Module, thought Kai, could be the material analog of SIMOC, eventually informing, improving the fidelity of the datasets. And here we are.

We pull and pry old objects from the Test Module. White on black monitor labels “SAMPLE”. Grinding paint from a steel bulkhead, strangely familiar shapes appear before me. They remind me of Percival Lowell’s certain discovery of canals on Mars. We keep grinding and then paint and eventually these billows also melt away. When we complete a task we whoop and holler aloud. It’s fun and it feels good to walk up to our quarters to make dinner; tonight, spaghetti with a cold beer. One sunset the air was full of moisture, glowing.

The form of the Test Module is structured by engineering paradigms of Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983), who was – among so much more – fascinated with the concept and realization of efficient enclosures. Again I bump up against a billow in time, I was taken to meet Fuller at my father’s university in the early 1980’s, then he was carried off to his world and I to mine and here I am back in manifestations of his mind.

Next to being real, and not a PowerPoint, the best thing I can think of the Test Module and its associated SAM project and the Biosphere project at large is the goodwill. These are things manifested from the mindset that all humanity can benefit from science and the imagination that it can ignite. I wonder what visitors to the larger Biosphere 2 structure think of the project. Sometimes I thank them for taking a little while to imagine something else, other possibilities. There are other ways to be, we can imagine them, sometimes we build models of them, sometimes we manage to live them. Only the coldest cynic or the most disinterested person could wonder at the use of such giant ideals manifest.

Another part of my being here; space suits. For the last decade, after my work as a prehistorian at Portland State Univeristy’s Department of Anthropology, I have been engaged in designing, building and testing a variety of pressurized garments; bubbles of ‘livingry’ that could allow humans to survive, for example, on Mars. We test them at altitudes, flying balloons, helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft…whatever will get us off the surface of Earth and testing things in the real world. They are working; they hold pressure, maintain acceptable temperature and CO2 levels, and allow the mobility needed for their various purposes. A single suit takes some months to complete. Now I come to build some suits of this kind for SAM. The challenges are invigorating. They must be durable, washable, easily-repaired, with few complexities; like an old farm pickup truck, nothing exotic, but entirely reliable and eminently refurbishable. I’ll work to maintain these features for the SAM suits. I think about them as I sand the steel bulkhead. Circular motions. Can I improve sleeve fit adjustment straps? Did I ever follow up on that new snap-link closure? How often will these be used in a given SAM simulation day? I need to write instructions on how to clean with detergent and then dry them. I keep sanding. The answers are jotted down in my pocket notepad. The sky flares orange and we head back up the hill for dinner.

By kai|2021-05-12T07:00:08+00:00February 16th, 2021|Categories: Visitors to SAM|0 Comments

SAM Construction – Step by Step

The work at SAM continues, each day one more item checked off the list. We are nearing the point at which deconstruction gives way to construction, where our effort to break is instead to rebuild. This week Trent and Kai lowered the massive, welded I-beam platform which held the even more massive heat exchanger. Trent remove those bolts that would turn, cut the others, and disassemble the frame.

Cameron removed a complex array of wiring and conduit from the front porch of the test module, the light fixtures yet filled with water from the last rain. The heavily cracked paint was ground and sanded to remove anything lose, the edges feathered, then secured with an exterior metal primer.